GRANT
journal
ISSN 1805-062X, 1805-0638 (online), ETTN 072-11-00002-09-4
EUROPEAN GRANT PROJECTS | RESULTS | RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT | SCIENCE
Masculinity vs. femininity
In the countries with prevalent masculine values in the national
dimension the traits such as the ability to enforce one's views,
competitiveness and materialism, are esteemed and cherished. In
contrast, in the countries with feminine values, interpersonal
relationships and the quality of life prevail. In the masculine culture
workplaces, it is manifested through a strong emphasis on the
security associated with financial expression and interesting work
activities. In contrast, the feminine cultures prefer the values such as
human relations and working conditions.
Uncertainty avoidance
This dimension refers to the degree of seriousness, which society
gives to the values such as stability, security and prognosis. It is
reflected on the organizational level in the countries with a high
score in this national dimension by establishing formal rules for
controlling and structuring the work activities. This also includes
operational tasks and responsibility. Avoidance of uncertainty
reflects the extent of the necessity to control the future. A high
degree of uncertainty avoidance focuses on general rules, and the
laws are accepted. A change is seen as a threat with associated risks.
In contrast, a low degree of uncertainty avoidance views changes as
a chance and not a risk. In countries with low uncertainty avoidance
people frequently change employers and professions.
Short-term vs. long-term orientation
This cultural dimension expresses the amount of planning in society.
In the short-term orientation, the past and present is important – in
the long-term orientation, the future, traditions and rituals are
important. In the work context, it is manifested through the nature of
employment relationships: The cultures with a short-term
orientation are focused on short-term results, and cultures with a
long-term orientation are focused on building good business
relationships, market position, and especially sustainability.
Modulation of affects
This national dimension expresses the range, i.e. the ability to
coordinate impulsive behavior. It shows to what extent it is
acceptable to openly show human emotions. A low score on the
scale indicates a very strong control of human emotions in public.
China can be taken as an example – the non-verbal aspects, such as
facial expressions and gestures, are almost absent in communication.
In public, it is reflected through prudent and discreet demeanor
(Hofstede et al., 2005, 2017).
B. Cultural dimensions according to Trompenaars
Trompenaars accommodates culture as a dynamic process of
solutions to human problems in three areas: human relations,
understanding of time and nature. Based on the works of Hofstede
and Hall, he developed the theory of analysis of cultural differences.
In the 1980s, Trompenaars conducted a study with 15,000
employees in various hierarchies in 28 countries (Trompenaars,
1993) and extended it in the early 1990s to add further 15,000
questionnaires. He identified five cultural dimensions, however,
these were deviating from Hofstede. These values were aptly
summarized by Gunkel (2011, p. 385):
Universalism vs. particularism
Universalism refers to the social code. It is assumed that what is
good and right should be defined and used at all times.
Particularistic values are concentrated on the use of specific
connections and relationships - social code is not relevant here.
Therefore, particularistic culture do not recognize one set way only,
but they are tolerant to other approaches, and those related to
families stand at the forefront.
Individualism vs. communitarianism
This dimension explains the extent to which individuals are
perceived as members of a group. Individualistic cultures prefer the
ideas and development of the individual while the communitarian
cultures favor the community with the possibility of developing
many.
Neutrality vs. emotionality
The neutrality vs. emotionality cultural dimension shows the point
in which emotion is expressed in social interaction. In neutral
cultures, the interpersonal relationships are therefore more objective
and distanced.
Specificity vs. diffusion
Diffuse cultures prefer real personal relationships in the workplace.
In the specific cultures, the relations between business partners
depend on the situation and are mostly regulated by contracts.
Achievement vs. ascription
In cultures where performance is valued, reports on the employee's
previous successes are preferred. In cultures where ascription and
lineage play an important role, one's status is secured rather through
tribal relations, social status, gender or age.
Trompenaars later added two more cultural dimensions to the above:
Seriality vs. Parallelism (Sequential time vs. synchronous time),
which reflect the treatment of time in a particular culture, i.e. events
occurring sequentially/consecutively or synchronously/concurrently.
For example, the work processes are sequential in Germany and
simultaneous in China. Internal vs. outer direction reflects the
treatment of nature, and especially the interference into the
environment either through control or cooperation (Gunkel, 2011, p.
385).
C. Cultural dimensions according to Hall
A research into nonverbal communication in connection with
intercultural management was conducted by Edward T. Hall who
had expert interviews with over 180 senior executives over a period
of two decades, seeking an answer to the research question: How
much communication is enough? Given the communication context,
he distinguishes between low and high cultural context (Hall et al.,
1990, p. 6). In the high-context culture, everything related to the
unspoken moods and gestures associated with the communication
process is essential in addition to the spoken word. In contrast, in the
low-context culture, it is necessary to communicate more
extensively and even express the moods and gestures because the
relevant society is not collective, and it requires a deeper
explanation for the recipient to better understand the message.
Explicit communication is thus based on the division between work
and private relationships (Gunkel, 2011, p. 380). Similarly, Hall
identifies the idea of space and time as cultural dimensions that vary
depending on the western/northern and eastern/southern mentality.
In the western cultures, the notion of time is linear, much is planned
in advance, and the set time is respected. In contrast, in Eastern
cultures, time flexibility and personal contacts are preferred, and
timeliness does not play a very important role. Hall and Hall (1990)
distinguish between western and eastern mentality in the workplace,
which is demonstrated in the speed and manner of exchange of
information as follows: "In high-context cultures, interpersonal
contacts take precedence over everything else; wherever people are
spatially involved with each other, information flows freely. In
business, executives do not seal themselves off behind secretaries
and closed doors; in fact in Japan senior executives may even share
offices so that each person knows as much about the entire base of
operations as possible, and in France an executive will have ties to
a centrally located bureau chief to keep a finger on the pulse of
information flow. In these cultures most people are already highly
Vol. 9, Issue 1
72