GRANT
journal
ISSN 1805-062X, 1805-0638 (online), ETTN 072-11-00002-09-4
EUROPEAN GRANT PROJECTS | RESULTS | RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT | SCIENCE
al., 2004, p. 113). In the course of communication, subconscious
cognitive dissonance increases and manifests itself mostly
nonverbally (facial expressions, gestures) or paraverbally (intensity
and tenor of the voice), affecting subsequent social interaction.
Friedrich Glasl (2008) analyzed conflicts and crises. In his view, a
social conflict involves the interaction of least two actants with
irregularities in thinking, perception, feeling or actions in a way that
at least one of them is appalled. The conflicts have three
characteristics: 1) Non-compliance based on different values. 2)
Personally touching – the emotional aspects of conflict. 3)
Addressing the issue – points to an active, dynamic and expansive
aspects of conflicts. The fact that conflicts have multiple actants
(biased, observers, igniters, judges) makes them difficult to control
(Glasl, 1994, p. 14).
Conflicts are inherent to human life, so in practical terms they can
be regarded as normal and sometimes even necessary. Necessary
because development and growth cannot be achieved without
destroying and/or replacing the previous – this attitude, however,
depends on the culture of the country. Furthermore, conflict
situations cause burdensome feelings impacting, which have a
negative impact on health, as statistically confirmed by numerous
studies (Badura et al., 2010).
In recent decades we have noted huge changes in the companies due
to the development and growth of the global market. The
considerably more complex requirements for staff have opened the
way for new and modern concepts of cooperation, which if not taken
into account in crisis communication, may result in a further
escalation of the conflicts.
2.1 New forms of cooperation as the cause of conflicts
Empowerment
According to George Schreyögg (2008), empowerment is defined as
empowering within which the employee is entitled to individual
decisions and expected to act in his/her own initiative, foresight and
readiness to take responsibility (Schreyögg, 2008, p. 228). This
increases the need for information exchange and cooperation with
others in the company. This form of cooperation must be solely
based on the person's own will and not be enforced by corporate
rules. Here, a certain degree of diversity of possible cooperations
can be assumed because interpersonal relationships form and are
formed by work situations. It can also be assumed that the extension
of powers in the workplace by introducing empowerment and
thereby reducing the hierarchical positions increases the potential
for conflict arising from the collaboration. The organizations
accumulate the main themes of human existence mostly in a hidden
form, such as the desire for recognition, privileges and power – and
also the fear of rejection or failure on the other hand.
Comparison with others
The theory of social comparison is represented by Leon Festinger
(1954) who dealt with cognitive dissonance in comparison with
others. A person constantly compares himself/herself, either
consciously or unconsciously, to others. His/her goals have an effect
on who he/she compares to (Festinger, 1954). How social
comparison unravels in the workplace? 1) communicatively, i.e.
through statements and their content, and 2) symbolically, by means
of status symbols. The outcome of social comparison with others
leads to self-knowledge and/or own categorization by identifying the
differences. Difference is followed by identity. It is natural that
everyone is trying to win when comparing himself/herself with
others (Klauer, 2008). However, social comparisons pave the way to
internal conflicts because comparison may result in a personal
defeat. This may result in emotional dissonance, which is
accompanied by negative feelings and manifests itself in
communication (Watzlawick et al., 2011).
Emotional effects on humans
Organizations are constantly exposed to changes and experts agree
that only the most agile survive. Man is naturally seeking stability –
and not change. Change can be associated with the fear of failure,
rivalry or failure when being confronted by novelties. According to
Ansfried B. Weinert (2004), even technological progress and
competitiveness of the organization bring various changes. For an
organization to respond more quickly on the market, a tendency of
enterprises to narrow the hierarchical structures has been observed
in Germany in the recent years. Of course, the breakdown of
hierarchies increases the exclusivity of the leading positions in the
organization. This situation promotes competitiveness and rivalry in
the workplace. Hugo-Becker and Becker (2004) recognize that
organizational decisions, e.g. allocation of hierarchical positions,
bonuses or declaration of public recognition for the achievements of
someone, can cause emotional reactions, such as envy, in other
employees (Hugo-Becker et al., 2004, p. 145). But even the mergers
or introduction of new technologies bring about changes in the
corporate culture and a certain degree of stress among the
employees who are constantly confronted with the loss of jobs,
changes in the job positions or standards in the company (Weinert,
2004, p. 300).
A defiant reaction of the employees, the so-called reactance, is a
motivational impetus for the internal rejection of the novelties, and
is primarily manifested in process changes (Landes & Steiner, 2013,
p. 732). If reactance grows to mass proportions in a company, there
is only a small step to a crisis. Resistance can be demonstrated in the
workplace in various modern ways, such as absenteeism, which is
defined as frequent or unjustified absence at work. A much more
serious problem for an organization is the so-called presenteeism,
which is defined as working while sick. When a person appears in
the workplace and is unfit for work, he/she has lower productivity
and makes more mistakes. Low concentration in the workplace often
corresponds with dissonant human relations (Aronsson et al., 2000).
Einarsen (1999) highlights the need to analyze the dimension of
long-term psychological pressure and its permanent social
consequences for the individual.
2.2 The cultural mode of conflict resolution
Communication is the basis for the dissemination of culture and
cultural traditions, and conflict resolution depends not only the
relevant technique, but also on the culture. Among others, culture
also has the “legitimation” function, i.e. the cultural modes can be
used to resolve and overcome conflicts. In other words, a given
culture requires us to behave in a certain way. According to
Hofstede (2005), culture is the collective programming of the mind.
For example, rivalry is not desired in the Chinese collectivist
culture, and therefore it is handled indirectly. The semantic meaning
of competitiveness is “special admiration”. Chinese culture is
forcing the Chinese employees to transform the perceived rivalry in
the course of communication into polite or even flattering words. In
the Confucian collectivist culture of the country it serves to protect
the speakers from conflicts (at least outwardly), with harmony at the
forefront. In contrast, the German individualist culture requires a
direct and open communication in the workplace. The reason is the
thinking and actions in the companies, which aptly illustrates the
Hofstede implicit organization model in Fig. 1.
Vol. 9, Issue 1
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